Introduction
Mauritania, a country located in Northwest Africa, represents one of the most paradoxical contemporary arenas in the field of human rights. Although the country officially abolished slavery in 1981 and subsequently adopted multiple laws criminalizing the practice, evidence demonstrates that slavery continues in both overt and covert forms. In Mauritania, slavery is not a temporary phenomenon but a deeply entrenched system interwoven with tribal structures, social relations, and historical patterns of power. Accordingly, its persistence is not merely a domestic issue but a serious violation of international human rights law, consistently drawing the attention of international organizations and regional monitoring mechanisms.
Investigations and reports from human rights institutions reveal that thousands of individuals in Mauritania continue to live in conditions akin to slavery. These conditions include forced labor without pay, denial of education, forced marriages, and deprivation of the most basic human rights. Such practices not only undermine the rule of law but also perpetuate a cycle of marginalization and intergenerational exploitation.
A key concern lies in the profound gap between law and practice. While the Mauritanian government, under international pressure, has passed symbolic reforms and introduced legal instruments, the effective implementation of these laws remains gravely insufficient. Judicial and security institutions frequently delay prosecution and punishment of perpetrators, fostering an environment of impunity that enables slavery to persist. This vicious cycle highlights the structural challenges facing Mauritania in eradicating slavery and raises fundamental questions regarding the state’s political will, institutional capacity, and accountability in meeting its international human rights obligations.
Incidents
In 1981, Mauritania became the last country in the world to formally abolish slavery, and in subsequent years—in 2003, 2007, and 2015—it introduced criminalization measures. Act No. 2003-025 (on combating human trafficking) harmonized national definitions with United Nations instruments, while act no. 2007-048 marked a milestone by criminalizing slavery for the first time, distinguishing between “crimes” and “misdemeanors,” and delegitimizing its historical legitimacy. Following the constitutional reform of 2012, act no. 2013-011 recognized slavery and torture as crimes against humanity, although some punishments were criticized as disproportionate.
Act No. 2015-031, inspired by Islamic values, constitutional principles, and international commitments, expanded the definition of slavery to cover new forms of exploitation, strengthened penalties, granted human rights organizations the right to initiate lawsuits alongside victims, and provided judicial exemptions for survivors[1]. Nevertheless, slavery remains a lived reality. For instance, in 2016 alone, approximately 43,000 people were enslaved in Mauritania—about 1% of the population—yet only two individuals were convicted on slavery-related charges that year[2]. The Global Slavery Index in 2018 estimated around 90,000 victims. International organizations such as Walk Free described the situation as modern slavery with traditional characteristics[3].
Mauritania’s demographic composition further exacerbates the issue. Approximately one-third of the population consists of “Haratin,” Black Mauritanians descended from enslaved ancestors. They are often referred to as slaves by certain Arab and Amazigh communities with lighter skin tones. This systemic humiliation and discrimination has roots in Mauritania’s post-independence history. Following independence in the 1960s and border disputes with Senegal, tensions escalated in the 1980s. With power concentrated in the hands of light-skinned elites, Black communities were perceived as threats and accomplices of the enemy. The state was complicit in ethnic cleansing, weaponizing “Arabization” as a tool of governance[4]. Even today, Black Mauritanians, often descendants of enslaved people, are regarded as inferior within dominant social discourse.
The Mauritanian government consistently denies the existence of slavery and retaliates against those who expose it. According to the U.S. Department of State’s 2024 report, freedom of expression remains curtailed: censorship driven by government pressure, arrests of journalists and activists for online activities, and legal and social threats against critics are widespread. Peaceful assembly is also restricted, with protests dispersed by force and activists facing administrative and legal hurdles[5]. Informally, in Mauritanian society, Black slaves can still be sold, leased, exchanged, gifted, summarily executed without trial, beaten, sterilized, raped, and exported to other countries. Slave markets reportedly still exist, particularly in the city of Araar. Black slaves in Mauritania herd livestock, collect dates and gum Arabic, and labor in oases and arable farms[6]. Many lack freedom of movement, access to education, and independence in decision-making, continuing to live under domination and exploitation. Even some who have been freed, due to educational and social poverty, struggle to adapt to independent life and sometimes prefer to remain enslaved[7].
Slavery in Mauritania is strictly hereditary: individuals born into enslaved families are forced to perpetuate the conditions of their parents, extending across generations. Enslaved adults and children are considered the property of their masters and may be bought, sold, rented, or gifted. Women bear the brunt, subjected not only to domestic, agricultural, and pastoral labor but also to widespread sexual violence, forced marriages, and exploitation within and beyond the country[8]. Children born of such assaults are also regarded as property, transferable through inheritance, marriage, or gifts[9]. This persistence is underscored by President Mohamed Ould Cheikh El Ghazouani’s 2023 electoral campaign pledge to resolve slavery legally. During his campaign in June 2023, he called for a state that erases the traces of slavery and promotes justice and citizenship[10].
Challenges and Responses
- State Denial and Concealment
A major challenge in addressing slavery in Mauritania is the government’s persistent denial, citing past laws and criminalization measures to claim compliance. Even President Ghazouani, despite invoking anti-slavery slogans during his campaign, had previously denied the practice’s existence. Authorities present this narrative as proof of their commitment to human rights, but in reality, it serves to mask the continuity of hereditary slavery and forced labor.
This approach places anti-slavery activists under immense pressure. For example, Amadou Tidjane Diop, an anti-slavery activist arrested in 2016, told Amnesty International in June 2017: “The police handcuffed and blindfolded me. I had no idea where they were taking me. When we arrived, one officer said, ‘Welcome to Guantanamo.’ Before interrogation, one guard warned me: ‘Just say what they want to hear. You know we have whatever it takes to make you talk[11].’” Such testimonies highlight the violent suppression of dissent in Mauritania and the widening gap between the state’s international obligations and its domestic realities.
- Illiteracy and Lack of Social Awareness
Illiteracy remains a persistent challenge exacerbating slavery. Only 51% of Mauritania’s population is literate, with female literacy at 43%. Education is essential to dismantling slavery and caste-based hierarchies, leading to the establishment of around 60 schools for former slaves since 2014. However, public schools often fail due to a lack of teachers, while children of lighter-skinned elites typically attend private institutions. Additionally, 41% of Mauritanian children lack birth certificates, preventing school enrollment. Former slaves, deprived of schooling, compensation, or state support, migrate to urban areas seeking work[12], where poor conditions force them into low-paid or unpaid jobs that perpetuate cycles of slavery.
- Domestic Reactions
The “El-Hor” movement, led by Messaoud Ould Boulkheir in 1978, sought to liberate the Haratin, but internal identity disputes caused splits. Some aligned with Arab identity, while others asserted independence, weakening the movement. Later, Boulkheir established the “Action for Change” party, which was dissolved in 2002 after he protested the persistence of slavery. Civil society organizations such as SOS-Slaves and IRA-Mauritania have since played vital roles. IRA, founded in 2007 by Biram Ould Dah Abeid, challenged the use of Maliki jurisprudence to justify slavery. Abeid even burned pro-slavery religious texts, an act that led to his arrest and death sentence, although international pressure prevented execution. Despite imprisonment, he won a seat in parliament and in 2013 received the United Nations Human Rights Prize[13].
- International Reactions
In May 2022, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) issued a press release on Mauritania, acknowledging progress but noting the persistence of hereditary slavery and systemic discrimination. The report emphasized weak enforcement, victims’ lack of access to justice due to poverty and fear of retaliation, and deep-rooted ethnic inequalities. The UN expert recommended strengthening judicial access, prioritizing the economic and social empowerment of the Haratin and other victims, and adhering to international commitments. The global community was urged to provide technical and financial support[14].
Similarly, the U.S.-based Corporate Accountability Lab published an article on August 7, 2025, highlighting widespread chattel slavery in Mauritania and the responsibility of corporations and international stakeholders. It argued that despite formal criminalization, systemic structures perpetuate slavery, exploiting victims in livestock, agriculture, and domestic labor without pay. The article stressed the role of foreign companies benefiting indirectly from this exploitation due to inadequate oversight in global trade. It called on Western partners to apply political and economic pressure to end impunity and urged corporations to exercise due diligence to prevent profiting from slave labor[15].
In May 2022, the UN Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery visited Mauritania, issuing a 14-page report with 22 recommendations to address poverty and eradicate slavery. These included ensuring accessible information for workers, guaranteeing protection for victims, creating a national compensation fund, facilitating victims’ economic reintegration, and establishing early warning systems for child labor[16].
Conclusion
Despite the formal abolition of slavery in 1981, field evidence and documented reports from human rights bodies confirm its persistence in structural and informal forms in Mauritania. Symbolic legislation and governmental measures have failed to eradicate this historical scourge and have instead reproduced new forms of social dependency and economic exploitation. The continuing plight of a significant portion of Mauritania’s Black population illustrates that legal abolition, absent institutional reinforcement, social reforms, and genuine political will, is insufficient.
Thus, slavery in Mauritania must be understood not only as a flagrant human rights violation but as a multidimensional crisis linked to sustainable development, social justice, and the political legitimacy of the state. Its persistence deepens social divides, entrenches historical discrimination, and undermines public trust in governance. Resolving this crisis requires a comprehensive approach combining sustained international pressure, robust domestic civil society activism, and transformative national policymaking. Without such measures, cycles of inequality will continue.
Moreover, Mauritania’s experience underscores that modern slavery is not merely a local problem but one with regional and international implications, including forced migration, social instability, and security threats. On the level of international law, its persistence exposes a sharp gap between states’ formal commitments and lived realities, underscoring the urgent need to strengthen international monitoring and enforcement mechanisms. Ultimately, eradicating slavery in Mauritania must be addressed as a global issue that requires simultaneous national reform and international accountability within the framework of human rights norms and mechanisms.
References
[1] Al-Bashir, M. (2024, September 25). Legislative Track to Address the Problem of Slavery in Mauritania. Alakhbar. From: https://alakhbar.info/?q=node%2F56390
[2] Amnesty. (2018, March 22). Persecuted for denouncing slavery. Amnesty. From: https://www.amnesty.fr/liberte-d-expression/actualites/persecutes-pour-avoir-denonce-lesclavage
[3] Etoundi, A. (2022). The thwarted ambitions of the fight against slavery in Mauritania. Open Edition Journals. From: https://journals.openedition.org/revdh/15360
[4] Quallen, B. (2023, August 27). Mauritania Country Report 2023: Slavery Persists. Genocide Watch. From: https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/mauritania-country-report-2023-slavery-persists
[5] Alakhbar. (2025, August 12). U.S. report: Human rights abuses in Mauritania continue. Alakhbar. From: https://alakhbar.info/?q=node%2F62718
[6] King, S. (2021, August 26). Ending Hereditary Slavery in Mauritania: Bidan (Whites) and Black “Slaves” in 2021. Arab Reform Initiative. From: https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/ending-hereditary-slavery-in-mauritania-bidan-whites-and-black-slaves-in-2021/
[7] Vatican News. (2024, August 02). Slavery is a painful reality facing Mauritania in the twenty-first century. Vatican News. From: https://www.vaticannews.va/ar/world/news/2024-08/schiavitu-razzismo-mauritania.html
[8] IRA France Mauritania. (N.D.). Slavery. IRA France Mauritania. From: https://irafrance-mauritanie.org/lesclavage/
[9] Anti-slavery. (2017). Application of anti-slavery legislation in Mauritania: the continuing inability of the judicial system to prevent, protect and punish. Anti-slavery. From: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/enforcing_mauritanias_antislavery_legislation_french.pdf
[10] Al’aswad, H. (2024, September 15). Mauritania Enters a New Era: A Specialized Court to Combat Slavery. Alarab. From: https://alarab.co.uk/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D8%AF%D8%AE%D9%84-%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B5%D8%B5%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9
[11] Amnesty. (2018, March 22). Mauritania: Growing repression of human rights defenders who denounce discrimination and slavery. Amnesty. From: https://amnesty.ca/human-rights-news/mauritania-growing-repression-of-human-rights-defenders-who-denounce-discrimination-and-slavery/
[12] Hellem, F. (2021, April 15). Mauritanian Spartacus: Will Put an End to Slavery?. Grey Dynamics. From: https://greydynamics.com/mauritanian-spartacus-will-put-an-end-to-slavery/
[13] King, s., & Maettalla, A. (2021, August 26). Racialized hereditary slavery in Mauritania: Interview with activist Abidine Maettalla. Arab Reform Initiative. From: https://www.arab-reform.net/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Arab_Reform_Initiative_en_racialized-hereditary-slavery-in-mauritania-interview-with-activist-abidine-maettalla_19779.pdf
[14] United Nations. (2022, May 13). Mauritania: UN expert encouraged by progress but says more work needed to fully eradicate slavery. United Nations. From: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/05/mauritania-un-expert-encouraged-progress-says-more-work-needed-fully
[15] Syed, M. (2025, August 07). Widespread Chattel Slavery in Mauritania: A Wake Up Call for Corporate Due Diligence. Corporate Accountability Lab. From: https://corpaccountabilitylab.org/calblog/2025/8/7/widespread-chattel-slavery-in-mauritania-a-wake-up-call-for-corporate-due-diligencenbsp
[16] Aljazeera. (2022, May 15). Significant progress acknowledged… 22 UN recommendations to eradicate slavery in Mauritania. Aljazeera. From: https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2022/5/15/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%81-%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85-%D9%85%D9%87%D9%85-22-%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1
