Introduction
The rapid expansion of communication technologies and social media has transformed the public sphere, significantly expanding opportunities for participation, the expression of views, and access to information. At the same time, however, this space has become one of the principal arenas for state regulation, surveillance, and intervention. While states may impose restrictions on certain forms of expression in pursuit of legitimate objectives such as protecting national security and public order, the broad or ambiguous use of concepts such as national security, counterterrorism, public order, and public morals can blur the line between legitimate regulation and unjustified restrictions on freedom of expression.
Saudi Arabia represents a notable example of this dynamic in the Middle East. While developing its digital infrastructure, expanding its presence in the global economy, and seeking to reshape its international image, the country has faced sustained criticism over its approach to freedom of expression and online activity. A significant part of this criticism concerns the use of cybercrime and counterterrorism laws in cases involving the publication of critical views, media activity, support for social reforms, or other forms of peaceful expression in the digital sphere. The issue is particularly significant in Saudi Arabia because the scope of these restrictions has not been confined to users within the country; it has also encompassed cases involving foreign visitors, Saudi activists living abroad, the geo-blocking of critics’ accounts, and the role of technology companies in implementing government requests.
Incidents
In recent years, restrictions on freedom of expression in Saudi Arabia have become increasingly intertwined with security mechanisms and controls over cyberspace. Citing cybercrime and counterterrorism laws, Saudi authorities have prosecuted a number of citizens, activists, journalists, and social media users for publishing or reposting critical content, supporting social reforms and women’s rights, or expressing political views. Lengthy prison sentences and, in some cases, the death penalty, together with digital surveillance and restrictions on access to information, have placed serious constraints on online expression in the country. This issue is not limited to Saudi nationals residing in the country; as Amnesty International has noted, visitors to Saudi Arabia have also been imprisoned over their social media posts.
In this context, Haidar Slim, a Lebanese national, was detained in 2022 after performing the Hajj pilgrimage. He had filmed himself chanting a Shia religious chant during Hajj, and the video was subsequently circulated online. He was prosecuted under the Anti-Cyber Crime Law for publishing content that authorities alleged undermined “public order and religious values,” and was sentenced to five years in prison and a fine. He was released in March 2025 after serving nearly three years of his sentence. In another case, Saudi authorities arrested Fahd Ezzi Mohammed Ramadhan, a Dutch-Yemeni national, on November 20, 2023, and held him for more than 18 months without formally charging him. Ramadhan told officials at the Dutch Embassy in Riyadh that he believed he had been detained because of online posts in which he had expressed sympathy with a critic of the Saudi royal family. He was ultimately released on June 1, 2025[1].
In the same context, Saudi Arabia fell 14 places in the 2026 World Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders (RSF). The organization linked the country’s decline in the ranking to continued acts of violence against journalists in 2025, including the execution of Turki al-Jasser[2]. Turki al-Jasser, a Saudi journalist and columnist who had been detained since 2018, was executed on June 14, 2025, following his conviction on charges that included treason, collaboration with foreign parties, financing terrorism, and endangering national security and the country’s unity. Press freedom organizations have reported that Saudi authorities believed him to be the individual behind an anonymous account on X that published critical material and allegations concerning corruption within the Saudi royal family. His case has also drawn attention in the broader context of concerns over access by individuals linked to Saudi Arabia to Twitter user data—an issue that should be distinguished from the formal charges brought against al-Jasser himself[3].
Another case concerning freedom of expression in the digital sphere is that of Osama Khalid, a physician, blogger, and volunteer administrator of Arabic Wikipedia. Khalid, who was also active in the field of internet freedom, was arrested in July 2020, and his case was linked to his online activities and charges including “provoking public opinion.” Specialized Criminal Court (SCC) initially sentenced him to five years in prison, but the sentence was increased on appeal to 32 years. It was subsequently reduced to 25 years in 2023 and then to 14 years in September 2025. In February 2026, his 14-year prison sentence was upheld, and he remains detained in Al-Ha’ir Prison[4].
On January 9, 2024, Saudi Arabia’s Specialized Criminal Court (SCC), which is known for adjudicating terrorism-related cases, sentenced Manahel al-Otaibi, a 29-year-old fitness instructor and women’s rights activist, to 11 years in prison for promoting women’s rights online. Her conviction followed a secret trial marred by violations of fair-trial guarantees. The Specialized Criminal Court found her guilty of “terrorist offenses” on the basis of her tweets in support of women’s rights, as well as photographs she had posted on Snapchat showing herself in a shopping mall without an abaya[5]. On August 21, 2025, the appeals court of the Specialized Criminal Court overturned her 11-year sentence and resentenced her to five years in prison, followed by a five-year travel ban after her release. Al-Otaibi remained in detention at the time of writing.
Abdulrahman al-Sadhan, an employee of the Saudi Red Crescent Authority (SRCA), was also arrested in March 2018. Following prolonged periods of detention without contact with his family, the Specialized Criminal Court in Riyadh sentenced him on April 5, 2021, to 20 years in prison, followed by a 20-year travel ban, in a case in which a substantial part of the evidence concerned satirical tweets attributed to him[6]. Amnesty International and other human rights organizations have stated that the proceedings were marred by violations of fair-trial guarantees and that a confession allegedly obtained under duress was also used against him. The appeals court upheld the sentence on October 5, 2021, and his contact with his family has been cut off since then. In August 2026, Together for Justice stated that his family had received no calls, visits, or reliable and independent information concerning his condition or precise place of detention, and characterized the continuation of this situation as enforced disappearance[7].
Another case concerns Mohammed Ahmed al-Ghamdi, known by his pen name Al-Hazza, a Saudi cartoonist for the Qatari newspaper Lusail. He was arrested on February 13, 2018, during the period of tensions and severed relations between Saudi Arabia and Qatar. His case was linked to cartoons he had published in the newspaper, which Saudi authorities regarded as demonstrating sympathy with Qatar and insulting Saudi Arabia. On June 8, 2021, al-Ghamdi was sentenced to six years in prison and a six-year travel ban. On September 13 of the same year, an appeals court reduced his sentence to three and a half years in prison and a three-and-a-half-year travel ban. Despite the completion of this period, he was not released, and his case was reopened in late 2023. Following those proceedings, details of which were not made public, his sentence was increased to 23 years in prison in early 2024[8]. The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) and Reporters Without Borders (RSF) have criticized his continued detention and the imposition of this sentence in connection with his professional activities and artistic expression.
Challenges and Responses
- Managing the International Image and Criticism Related to Sportswashing
Alongside criticism concerning restrictions on freedom of expression and the treatment of online activity, Saudi Arabia’s policies aimed at expanding its international presence and influence through extensive investment in sports and entertainment have also attracted the attention of human rights organizations. Human Rights Watch has, in some instances, analyzed this policy through the concept of sportswashing, arguing that the extensive use of the financial resources of Saudi Arabia’s Public Investment Fund (PIF) in the sports sector can contribute to improving the country’s international image amid continuing human rights criticism. The organization points to Saudi Arabia’s investments in football, golf, tennis, Formula One, and its hosting of the 2034 FIFA World Cup as examples of sportswashing—that is, the use of the appeal of sports to attract global attention and reduce scrutiny of the repression of dissent, the killing of Jamal Khashoggi, restrictions on women’s rights, and the treatment of civil society activists[9]. Human Rights Watch has also emphasized that the PIF’s substantial investments in sports and entertainment are taking place while the government continues to exert pressure on peaceful critics and human rights activists[10]. From this perspective, critics argue that the economic power generated by oil revenues has become not only an instrument of economic development but also a means of managing Saudi Arabia’s global image and mitigating the political costs associated with human rights criticism. It was in the context of these same concerns that, in 2023, Amnesty International called on Cristiano Ronaldo, one of the world’s leading football stars, following his signing with the Saudi club Al-Nassr in Riyadh, to use his time playing in Saudi Arabia to also draw attention to human rights violations in the country[11].
- Domestic Responses
Among Saudi activists and dissidents living abroad, the blocking of critics’ social media accounts prompted strong reactions. Yahya Assiri, a Saudi human rights defender, described the measure as part of a long-standing pattern of silencing critical voices and warned that Saudi authorities regard even critics operating outside the country who remain connected with society inside Saudi Arabia as a threat. Abdullah Alaoudh, a Saudi activist based in the United States, likewise characterized the measure as censorship. Criticizing the role of technology companies in implementing restrictions requested by the Saudi government, he said that activists in exile must now contend not only with repressive governments but also with companies that facilitate the implementation of such restrictions. Ghanem Almasarir, a Saudi satirist and critic, also expressed surprise at technology companies’ cooperation with Saudi requests and warned that such a practice could establish a model for other authoritarian governments around the world[12].
- International Responses
In its annual report on the human rights situation in Saudi Arabia, the United States Department of State identified extensive restrictions on freedom of expression and internet freedom as among the country’s principal human rights concerns, stating that the Saudi government had used cybercrime and counterterrorism laws to prosecute individuals merely for publishing critical views on social media. Referring to cases such as those of Salma al-Shehab and Nourah al-Qahtani, the report emphasized that social media users had faced lengthy prison sentences and travel bans because of content they had posted online. The report further stated that the Saudi government’s extensive surveillance of online activities, identification of anonymous users, and control over internet content had contributed to widespread self-censorship among users, with many refraining from expressing critical views or showing support for detained activists for fear of prosecution[13].
A coalition of international organizations working to defend human rights and digital freedoms also objected in a report to Meta’s restriction of Facebook and Instagram accounts belonging to Saudi human rights organizations, researchers, and civil society activists. The organizations, including ALQST for Human Rights, Access Now, Democracy for the Arab World Now (DAWN), and the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), stated that Meta’s geo-blocking of accounts such as those of Yahya Assiri and Abdullah Alaoudh, following a request from the Saudi government, effectively turns technology companies into instruments for implementing repressive state policies. They stressed that Saudi Arabia, relying on broadly framed cybercrime and counterterrorism laws, has criminalized critical online expression and that technology companies must assess the human rights implications of restrictive government requests before complying with them and be transparent about their decision-making processes. The organizations called on Meta to publish the official government requests it had received, the human rights assessments it had conducted, and the legal basis for the restrictions, and to restore full access to the blocked accounts[14].
Subsequently, the Geneva-based organization Women Journalists Without Chains (WJWC), in a report on the geo-blocking of dozens of human rights, political, and media accounts in Saudi Arabia, described the measure as an intensification of the use of digital platforms to restrict citizens’ access to independent information. The organization stated that, since July 2026, at least 65 accounts belonging to human rights organizations, journalists, researchers, exiled activists, and Saudi dissidents—including Yahya Assiri and Abdullah Alaoudh—had become inaccessible within Saudi Arabia. According to the report, the restrictions were imposed at the request of Saudi authorities, on the basis of the Anti-Cyber Crime Law and broadly defined concepts such as “public order,” “religious values,” and “public morals,” without identifying the specific content at issue or providing an effective mechanism for appealing the decisions. The organization emphasized that, in addition to violating freedom of expression and the right of access to information, this practice also raises questions regarding the responsibility of technology companies such as X to comply with international human rights standards[15].
In addition, in a report published in mid-May 2026, the Financial Times addressed the intensification of restrictions by the Saudi government against citizens who had criticized unemployment and the recruitment of foreign nationals to senior positions in state-owned companies on social media. According to the report, the General Authority of Media Regulation summoned 49 individuals over 68 alleged social media violations, defined under regulations prohibiting the “disruption of public order, national security, and the requirements of the public interest.” The Financial Times reported that the measures followed the widespread circulation of posts concerning the appointment of relatively inexperienced foreign nationals to certain managerial positions in major government projects. The newspaper also reported that some users, after sharing their experiences in the labor market or expressing sympathy with job seekers, were compelled to delete their posts and were warned against repeating such actions. In the same report, experts and organizations defending freedom of expression characterized the measures as part of a broader trend of restricting public criticism in the digital sphere[16].
Conclusion
An examination of developments relating to freedom of expression in Saudi Arabia reveals the emergence of a pattern in which legal and security mechanisms are being increasingly applied to the sphere of expression and digital communications. The central issue is not merely the existence of restrictive regulations, but rather the breadth of certain legal concepts and the manner in which terms such as national security, public order, and counterterrorism are interpreted and enforced. In the absence of clear definitions, predictable standards, and effective oversight, such concepts can encompass a wide range of peaceful forms of expression. As a result, the digital sphere is transformed from a purely communicative space into one in which the consequences of critical expression may range from content removal and account restrictions to criminal prosecution and severe penalties.
From an analytical perspective, the significance of this trend lies in the fact that control over the space for expression relies on a network of legal, judicial, and technological tools, as well as cooperation by transnational platforms. Such a structure can produce deterrent effects extending well beyond those directly subjected to prosecution, contributing to the spread of self-censorship, restrictions on the free flow of information, and diminished opportunities for the development of independent public discourse. At the same time, Saudi Arabia’s extensive efforts to enhance its international standing and reshape its public image have further highlighted the gap between its external image-building policies and criticism concerning the state of civil liberties. From this perspective, freedom of expression in Saudi Arabia forms part of a broader debate concerning the relationship between security, digital sovereignty, the responsibility of technology companies, and states’ obligations under international human rights standards.
References
[1] Amnesty International. (2026, June 29). Saudi Arabia: Visitors to Saudi Arabia imprisoned for social media posts. Amnesty International. From: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2026/06/saudi-arabia-visitors-to-saudi-arabia-imprisoned-for-social-media-posts/
[2] Bocandé, A. (n.d). 2026 RSF Index: press freedom at a 25-year low. RSF. From: https://rsf.org/en/2026-rsf-index-press-freedom-25-year-low
[3] CPJ. (2025, June 14). Saudi Arabia executes journalist Turki al-Jasser on treason, terrorism charges. CPJ. From: https://cpj.org/2025/06/saudi-arabia-executes-journalist-turki-al-jasser-on-treason-terrorism-charges/
[4] Mena Rights Group. (2026, May 11). NGOs call for immediate release of Saudi Wikipedian Osama Khalid, whose 14-year sentence was upheld. Mena Rights Group. From: https://www.menarights.org/en/articles/ngos-call-immediate-release-saudi-wikipedian-osama-khalid-whose-14-year-sentence-was
[5] Amnesty International. (2025, February 13). Saudi Arabia: Woman unjustly convicted for social media posts about women’s rights forcibly disappeared. Amnesty International. From: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/02/saudi-arabia-woman-unjustly-convicted-for-social-media-posts-about-womens-rights-forcibly-disappeared/
[6] DAWN. (2024, September 11). Saudi Arabia must free detainees jailed for online expression before UN internet forum in Riyadh. DAWN. From: https://dawnmena.org/saudi-arabia-must-free-detainees-jailed-for-online-expression-before-un-internet-forum-in-riyadh/
[7] Together for justice. (2026, August 26). Abdulrahman Al-Sadhan: Saudi Humanitarian Activist Forcibly Disappeared Since 2021 After Years of Isolation, Alleged Torture, and an Unjust Sentence. Together for justice. From: https://taj-rights.org/abdulrahman-al-sadhan-saudi-humanitarian-activist-forcibly-disappeared-since-2021-after-years-of-isolation-alleged-torture-and-an-unjust-sentence/
[8] Mena Rights Group. (2026, January 28). Saudi cartoonist detained and sentenced under cybercrime laws. Mena Rights Group. From: https://www.menarights.org/en/case/mohammed-ahmed-al-ghamdi-pen-name-al-hazzaa
[9] HRW. (n.d.). Saudi Arabia, Events of 2024. HRW. From: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/saudi-arabia
[10] Francavilla, C. (2024, January 17). Saudi Government Uses European Football to Sportswash its Reputation. HRW. From: https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/01/17/saudi-government-uses-european-football-sportswash-its-reputation
[11] Amnesty International. (2023, January 4). Saudi Arabia: At Al-Nassr, Cristiano Ronaldo should draw attention to human rights issues. Amnesty International. From: https://www.amnesty.ie/saudi-arabia-cristiano-ronaldo/
[12] Abdul, G. (2026, August 4). Elon Musk’s X latest to block Saudi dissident accounts inside kingdom. The Guardian. From: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2026/aug/04/x-twitter-blocks-dissident-accounts-saudi-arabia
[13] U.S. Department of State. (n.d). 2023 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Saudi Arabia. U.S. Department of State. From: https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/saudi-arabia/
[14] ALQST. (2025, May 20). Meta blocks human rights accounts from reaching audiences in Saudi Arabia and the UAE. ALQST. From: https://www.alqst.org/en/post/meta-blocks-human-rights-accounts-from-reaching-audiences-in-saudi-arabia-and-the-uae
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[16] Al Omran, A. (2026, May 15). Saudi Arabia curbs complaints about jobs for foreigners. The Financial Times. From: https://www.ft.com/content/0fe4a1e7-cba8-4740-9891-523f34ad6392
