Introduction
In the contemporary world, the large-scale, systematic, and organized destruction of the environment, as well as damage to urban, industrial, and critical infrastructure that directly or indirectly leads to the degradation of ecosystems, has emerged as one of the most serious challenges to human security and ecological sustainability. Within this framework, the concept of ecocide, as an emerging crime in international law, represents a theoretical and legal effort to conceptualize such destruction as an independent criminal category and to ensure accountability for both state and non-state actors.
Following the commencement of military attacks by the United States and Israel on Iranian territory on the morning of February 28, 2026, which involved the bombardment of political and military targets in Tehran and southern regions of the country, a range of both military and civilian targets were struck. Within less than ten days of the onset of hostilities, the pattern of military operations shifted from a primary focus on military objectives toward targeting critical infrastructure—an evolution indicating the transition of the conflict into a more complex phase with broader humanitarian and environmental consequences.
Among these developments, the attacks on oil storage facilities in the Shahran and Shahr-e Rey areas of Tehran stand out as one of the most prominent examples of this approach. These attacks not only caused significant material damage but also led to the widespread release of environmental pollutants across urban areas, generating serious consequences for public health and environmental quality. This incident once again draws the attention of the legal and international community to concepts such as ecocide and the necessity of strengthening accountability mechanisms for states in relation to large-scale environmental violations, even in situations of armed conflict—particularly in light of obligations arising from international humanitarian law and international environmental law, both of which recognize environmental protection as a common interest of humanity.
Incidents
According to reports, on the evening of March 7, 2026, several fuel- and oil-related targets in Tehran Province and Alborz Province were struck. Reports indicated that multiple storage depots and at least one oil transfer and logistics center were targeted, including sites in the northern, southern, and western parts of Tehran, as well as a depot in Karaj[1]. Overall, an examination of domestic Iranian media suggests that four main targets were struck: oil facilities in Kouhak, Fardis, Shahran, and Shahr-e Rey.
Due to the intense explosions of fuel tanks, surrounding areas experienced widespread destruction. Among the damaged sites was a dialysis medical center in Fardis, which was completely destroyed[2]. According to provincial authorities, two schools and approximately 100 residential units were also damaged[3]. In addition to human casualties—including at least six fatalities and 21 injuries resulting from the attacks on Fardis alone[4]—the immediate consequence of these strikes was the outbreak of large-scale fires and the formation of massive plumes of dark smoke that covered parts of Tehran’s skyline.
Field reports and eyewitness accounts described severe air suffocation, irritation of the eyes and throat, and the deposition of soot and black residue on vehicles and urban surfaces. Some visual reports also indicated the leakage of petroleum fuel into streets, a matter of significant environmental concern, as it implies the direct transfer of hydrocarbons into surface drainage systems, urban soils, and ultimately groundwater through infiltration and rainfall[5]. This issue is not confined to the immediate site of the incident and may extend over a much wider radius, potentially affecting even distant cities.
According to domestic sources in Iran, air pollution levels in Tehran rose to such an extent following the bombardment of oil depots that contamination spread as far as Garmsar County and Eyvanaki in Semnan Province[6]—locations nearly 100 kilometers from Tehran.
It should be noted that explosions of oil storage facilities release large quantities of toxic hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere and cloud systems. In the event of precipitation, this can result in highly hazardous acid rain with strong corrosive properties, capable of causing chemical burns to the skin and damage to the lungs[7].
According to the Department of Environment of Iran, the total volume of petroleum products that caught fire across three major storage facilities in Tehran—Shahran, Shahr-e Rey, and Kouhak—exceeded 360,000 cubic meters. The total volume of carbon dioxide emissions resulting from these fires is estimated to be close to one million tons. Furthermore, attacks on fuel storage tanks in Fardis, Alborz Province, released more than 53,000 tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and led to the emission of approximately 220 tons of aromatic compounds[8].
The air quality in Tehran deteriorated to such an extent after the attacks that a member of the Tehran City Council urged residents to use multilayer masks and warned of the imminent risk of acid rain[9]. The Ministry of Health also advised individuals with respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, as well as pregnant women, to protect themselves by using N95, FFP2, or FFP3 masks when outdoors[10].
In addition, the Iranian Red Crescent Society issued a public advisory urging residents to consider the risks of acid rain and provided six key recommendations:
- Avoid leaving home after acid rainfall due to lingering acidic vapors;
- Refrain from using evaporative (water-based) air coolers;
- Protect unpackaged food exposed to open air;
- Regularly cleanse respiratory pathways;
- Replace water purification system filters;
- Avoid using windshield wipers without water[11].
These precautionary measures underscore the severity and potentially lethal nature of the environmental conditions resulting from the explosions. Fine particulate matter and irritant gases can exacerbate asthma, bronchitis, and acute respiratory symptoms, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, individuals with cardiovascular or respiratory conditions, and pregnant women[12]. Ultrafine particles, including PM2.5 and smaller, can penetrate deeply into the lungs and, in some cases, enter the bloodstream. Consequently, the risks posed by such bombardments during conflicts may, in certain respects, exceed those associated with blast waves or other immediate military effects in terms of their impact on civilian populations.
Challenges and Responses
- Long-term Environmental Consequences
One of the major challenges associated with the explosion of fuel tanks and oil storage facilities is their long-lasting impact on the environment, both in surrounding areas and in more distant regions—even after the cessation of hostilities. In such incidents, large volumes of petroleum products, toxic gases, and particulate matter are released into the atmosphere, causing air quality to rapidly deteriorate to hazardous levels.
The combustion of crude oil and its derivatives generates compounds such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and soot—all of which are highly detrimental to human health and ecosystems. These substances can combine with atmospheric moisture and return to the ground in the form of acid rain, thereby damaging soil, water resources, and agricultural products.
The infiltration of petroleum products and combustion-related chemicals into the soil leads to long-term land contamination and reduced soil fertility. If these pollutants reach groundwater aquifers, access to safe drinking water for local populations becomes severely threatened. Moreover, many of the compounds released in such incidents possess carcinogenic properties, potentially resulting in long-term public health consequences.
In the short term, air pollution increases the incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases as well as skin conditions. Over the long term, it may lead to chronic health problems. At the same time, wildlife and vegetation are also affected, with some species potentially disappearing from the affected areas for extended periods. Soot and heavy particles can settle on soil and plant surfaces, disrupting natural ecological cycles.
In certain cases, the complete remediation of such contamination is extremely difficult and costly, potentially requiring years or even decades. If pollutants penetrate deeper soil layers, their effects may extend across generations. For this reason, crisis management, continuous environmental monitoring, and the implementation of post-incident restoration and remediation programs are of critical importance.
Without scientifically grounded and well-planned interventions, the Conflict and Environment Observatory (CEOBS), based in the United Kingdom, has warned that the environmental impacts of such explosions may persist over long periods, seriously threatening both human well-being and ecosystem health[13].
- Absence of a Fully Developed Legal Framework for Ecocide in International Law
Another major challenge highlighted in this analysis is the incomplete codification of ecocide within existing international legal norms. Despite significant efforts in recent years to develop international legal frameworks addressing ecocide, and notwithstanding relatively clear theoretical foundations, the imposition of international responsibility on states in practice continues to face numerous obstacles[14].
The absence of a comprehensive and binding legal framework for ecocide in international law means that large-scale and catastrophic environmental destruction often goes unpunished in terms of effective criminal accountability. Existing rules are either fragmented or primarily concerned with state responsibility, rather than the criminal liability of individuals or decision-makers.
International humanitarian law provides environmental protection only under specific conditions of armed conflict and with very high thresholds, leaving many environmental disasters outside its scope. Similarly, environmental treaties tend to focus more on prevention and cooperation rather than punishment.
The lack of a universally accepted definition of ecocide further complicates the identification of its instances and opens the door to political and subjective interpretations. In addition, the absence of a clearly defined international judicial mechanism leaves both human and environmental victims without an effective avenue for redress.
This legal vacuum effectively sends a message of impunity and may contribute to the continuation of environmentally destructive behavior. At the same time, the lack of binding norms undermines deterrence, as the legal costs of environmental destruction remain minimal or uncertain for those responsible.
- Domestic Reactions
Following the incident, a number of experts explicitly pointed to the extensive environmental consequences of such attacks. In this regard, an article published in Ynetnews by Adi Wolfson, head of the Master’s Program in Green Engineering at Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, systematically outlines the environmental impacts of attacks on oil infrastructure.
Wolfson highlights the release of particulate matter and toxic volatile organic compounds (VOCs), identifying them as among the most significant air pollutants in such incidents, with serious implications for public health. He also refers to the production of nitrogen and sulfur oxides, which contribute to the formation of acid rain and can have destructive effects on natural ecosystems, soil, and water resources.
In addition, he emphasizes the risks associated with fuel leakage and the direct contamination of soil, surface water, and groundwater—factors that may result in long-term and persistent environmental damage. Wolfson further points to the emission of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane, as a consequence of damage to energy infrastructure—an issue with not only local but also global implications in exacerbating climate change[15].
Similarly, several prominent experts in environmental science and chemical engineering have warned about the serious consequences of these events for human health and the environment. In this context, Peter Adams, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University, notes that the incomplete combustion of petroleum hydrocarbons leads to the production of microscopic soot particles and hazardous compounds such as PAHs, as well as toxic gases including sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are key contributors to acid rain formation.
He further emphasizes that these fine particles can penetrate deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as premature mortality. In addition, V. Faye McNeill, Professor of Chemical Engineering at Columbia University, underscores the severity of such pollution, stating that “acute health effects can certainly be expected from such an event,” and warns that even typical levels of air pollution can exacerbate diseases and increase hospitalization rates—let alone conditions involving large-scale combustion of petroleum products[16].
At the level of environmental reporting in the United States, the Los Angeles Times has also addressed the broader urban environmental consequences of such attacks. The report highlights that fires resulting from burning petroleum products in proximity to densely populated metropolitan areas expose large populations directly to hazardous pollutants.
In this regard, David J. X. González, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, warns that under such conditions, “acute respiratory health effects” should be expected, particularly among vulnerable groups. The report also identifies a significant challenge in assessing environmental consequences—namely, the existence of a data gap. In the absence of field sampling and precise empirical data, determining the true scale and impact of pollution on public health becomes extremely difficult.
This situation demonstrates that, alongside direct environmental consequences, limited access to reliable data itself constitutes a major obstacle to accountability, damage assessment, and the formulation of effective compensatory policies[17].
- International Reactions
At the level of international health institutions, the World Health Organization (WHO) has warned about the escalating consequences of the expansion of conflict in the Middle East, describing it as a serious threat to health systems and civilian lives at both regional and transregional levels. In this context, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General of the WHO, referred to the involvement of at least 16 countries and highlighted the rising number of casualties, repeated attacks on healthcare facilities, and large-scale population displacement—including the departure of approximately 100,000 individuals from the city of Tehran—as clear indicators of an intensifying humanitarian crisis.
He emphasized that attacks on healthcare infrastructure—several of which have been confirmed in Iran—constitute a clear violation of international humanitarian law, which mandates the protection of medical personnel, patients, and healthcare facilities under all circumstances. Furthermore, the WHO has warned of the indirect consequences of the conflict, including disruptions in medical supply chains, the suspension of operations in humanitarian logistics centers, and restricted access to essential medicines and equipment—factors that significantly exacerbate the public health crisis.
In this regard, Hanan Balkhy, WHO Regional Director, pointed to the rapid increase in humanitarian needs, the unprecedented pressure on health systems, the shutdown of certain medical facilities, and delays in the delivery of essential aid. She stressed that without immediate support and adequate funding, there is a serious risk of the collapse of essential health services and a corresponding rise in preventable human suffering across the region.
Overall, these assessments demonstrate that the consequences of the attacks and the escalation of hostilities extend beyond immediate damage, systematically undermining healthcare systems, access to medical services, and the health security of large populations[18].
At the level of international environmental governance, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in a statement issued in March 2026, confirmed—through remote sensing methods—that attacks on oil facilities located within or near urban areas, including in Tehran, had taken place. According to the statement, the dense smoke resulting from burning oil contains hazardous chemical compounds that are currently being inhaled by local populations, including children and other vulnerable groups, raising serious concerns about long-term environmental impacts and public health consequences.
The statement further warned about the secondary effects of pollution caused by uncontrolled fires, noting that such pollutants may infiltrate soil and water resources, seep into groundwater, and enter the food chain—particularly through absorption by agricultural products—thereby posing a threat to food security. It also highlighted the potential release of heavy metals and other toxic substances from munitions into the environment, which may have cumulative and long-lasting effects on ecosystems and human health[19].
A report titled “Black Rain” published by the Conflict and Environment Observatory (CEOBS) describes the attacks on Tehran’s oil infrastructure as a major environmental incident that has exposed millions of people to toxic pollutants. According to the report, these pollutants—including smoke and particulate matter—can enter water resources through precipitation and, due to Tehran’s geographical conditions and temperature inversion phenomena, accumulate within the urban atmosphere.
Even indoor environments are not fully protected from such contamination, and this situation may lead to increased rates of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as higher mortality. Moreover, the effects of these pollutants extend beyond urban boundaries, impacting ecosystems and agricultural systems in more distant regions[20].
Conclusion
The bombardment of strategic fuel reserves in Tehran and Alborz provinces by Israel has resulted in the emergence of a widespread and far-reaching wave of environmental pollution. These pollutants—including the leakage of crude oil and diesel, as well as the extensive release of atmospheric contaminants—have produced serious, multilayered, and long-term consequences for environmental quality in Tehran, Alborz, and surrounding regions.
This situation raises fundamental questions regarding the legitimacy of targeting infrastructure and civilian areas—including medical, educational, and industrial facilities—and generates deeper ambiguities concerning the scope and limits of state responsibility for environmental destruction in the context of armed conflict. In particular, any military action that directly or indirectly leads to widespread, severe, or long-term environmental damage requires rigorous legal assessment and effective accountability under the principles and rules of international humanitarian law and international environmental law.
Within this framework, the issue extends beyond a temporary environmental loss and evolves into a fundamental matter of international state responsibility—one that necessitates the identification, attribution, and reparation of damages inflicted upon ecosystems, as well as guarantees of non-repetition.
Moreover, the continuation of such attacks may generate long-term consequences for public health, food security, water resources, and ecological sustainability—effects that transcend national borders and assume regional and even global dimensions. In this context, the increasing prominence of the concept of ecocide as an emerging legal framework in international law reflects the urgent need to rethink existing legal mechanisms for addressing large-scale environmental destruction.
The existing gaps within the international legal system—particularly regarding the independent criminalization of such acts and the establishment of effective accountability mechanisms—demonstrate that without the development of clear, binding, and efficient legal instruments in the areas of prevention, accountability, and reparation, the environment will continue to remain among the most vulnerable victims of contemporary conflicts and crises.
References
[1] Al Jazeera Staff. (2026, March 8). Iran oil facilities hit for first time as war with US-Israel enters day 9. Al Jazeera. From: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/3/8/israel-strikes-irans-oil-facilities-for-first-time-as-war-enters-ninth-day
[2] SNN. (2026, March 8). Destruction of the Fardis dialysis center following enemy missile attacks. SNN. From: https://snn.ir/005mwS
[3] Irna. (2026, March 8). Destruction of two schools and 100 residential units due to the American–Zionist attack in Fardis. Irna. From: https://irna.ir/xjWPVF
[4] Ilna. (2026, March 8). The oil depot explosion is under control; the fire will be extinguished within the next few hours. Six people were killed and 21 injured last night in Alborz. Ilna. From: https://www.ilna.ir/fa/tiny/news-1759887
[5] Schneid, R, & Serjoie, K.A, & Jamalpour, F. (2026, March 8). ‘The Air is Unbreathable’: Tehran Shrouded in Cloud of Toxic Smoke After Israel Strikes Fuel Depots. Time. From: https://time.com/7383099/iran-news-oil-strikes-tehran/
[6] Irna. (2026, March 9). Transfer of pollution caused by the Tehran oil depot incident to the skies of western Semnan. Irna. From: https://irna.ir/xjWQby
[7] Mehr News. (2026, March 8). Protection against toxic acid rain caused by fuel tank explosions. Mehr News. From: Mehr News.com/x3by3G
[8] Ramezanali, M. (2026, April 13). Environmental damages from the “Ramadan War” have been announced. Mehr News. From: mehrnews.com/x3bNZD
[9] Khabar Online. (2026, March 8). The head of the Health Committee of the Tehran City Council: Citizens should definitely use multi‑layer masks. Khabar Online. From: khabaronline.ir/xpDVN
[10] Ilna. (2026, March 10). Warning about damage to water resources following acid rain / Air pollution caused by the attack on the oil depot will decrease if the wind continues to blow. Ilna. From: https://www.ilna.ir/fa/tiny/news-1760568
[11] Entekhab. (2026, March 8). Red Crescent announcement regarding pollution caused by the bombing of Tehran’s oil facilities: Acid rain may occur; observe these six guidelines. Entekhab. From: https://www.entekhab.ir/003pVs
[12] Farge, E & Rigby, J. (2026, March 10). WHO warns of health risks from ‘black rain’ in Iran. Reuters. From: https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/society-equity/who-warns-health-risks-black-rain-iran-2026-03-10/
[13] Fararu. (2026, March 16). Black Rain over Tehran; a toxic legacy that may persist for decades. Fararu. From: https://fararu.com/fa/tiny/news-956419
[14] Killean, R. (2022, March 30). The Benefits, Challenges, and Limitations of Criminalizing
Ecocide. Global Observatory. From: https://theglobalobservatory.org/2022/03/the-benefits-challenges-and-limitations-of-criminalizing-ecocide/
[15] Wolfson, Adi. (2026, March 9). From ‘black rain’ in Tehran to missile damage: the environmental toll of the Israel-US war with Iran. Ynetnews. From: https://www.ynetnews.com/environment/article/r1x5jk3tzg
[16] Biesecker, Michael. (2026, March 10). Experts say Iran school blast likely targeted airstrike. Associated Press. From: https://apnews.com/article/d5f67db4a772775c83dfa3fd303cf25d
[17] Millan, Laura, & Clark, Aaron. (2026, March 17). Toxic pollution from Iran war will spread and last for decades. Los Angeles Times. From: https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2026-03-17/toxic-pollution-from-iran-war-will-spread-last-for-decades
[18] World Health Organization (WHO). (2026, March 5). Health impact of the escalation of conflict in the Middle East. WHO. From: https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/health-impact-of-the-escalation-of-conflict-in-the-middle-east
[19] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2026, March 13). UNEP statement on environmental damage arising from the conflict in the Middle East. UNEP. From: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/statements/unep-statement-environmental-damage-arising-conflict-middle-east
[20] CEOBS. (2026, March 9). Black rain: the health and environmental risks from Tehran’s oil fires. CEOBS. From: https://ceobs.org/black-rain-the-health-and-environmental-risks-from-tehrans-oil-fires