Introduction
In recent years, issues related to gender-based violence, women’s safety, and the challenges arising from certain traditions and social patterns in Kazakhstan have increasingly drawn the attention of human rights organizations, media outlets, and public opinion. Developments such as growing social advocacy, the expansion of civil society activity, and increasing attention to international human rights standards—particularly the European Convention on Human Rights—have created a framework for revisiting certain criminal and protective laws in the country. Within this context, the criminalization of persistent harassment, forced marriage, and bride kidnapping can be seen as part of the Kazakh government’s efforts to respond to growing concerns about violence against women and to uphold the human dignity of individuals.
These developments have not only had a significant domestic impact but have also attracted attention from international media and organizations, as many of these issues have long been regarded as legal gaps or unresolved challenges in the field of women’s rights and individual freedoms. From this perspective, recent reforms in Kazakhstan can be interpreted as an indication of the legislators’ and policymakers’ efforts to balance social traditions, cultural transformations, and contemporary human rights obligations—a process that continues to provoke discussion, criticism, and diverse evaluations.
Incidents
Amid increasing public discussions regarding violence against women and the inefficiency of certain protective mechanisms in Kazakhstan, the government introduced a series of criminal and legal reforms in 2025, part of which criminalized persistent harassment, forced marriage, and bride kidnapping. This is significant because in certain traditional circles within the country, practices related to forced marriage and bride kidnapping—commonly referred to as Alyp Qashu—remain prevalent.
No reliable nationwide statistics exist regarding forced marriages in Kazakhstan, and until recently, no separate provision in the Penal Code explicitly prohibited them. However, in early 2025, a member of the Kazakh Parliament reported that over the past three years, the police had received 214 complaints of this nature[1]. These reforms emerged against the backdrop of high-profile cases, civil society reports, and mounting media criticism, which collectively drew public attention to legal gaps in the protection of women and their freedom of choice in marriage. The following outlines the main dimensions of these developments, the new legal provisions, and the context in which they were introduced.
The first proposal to outlaw bride kidnapping emerged in 2023. Between 2021 and 2023, Kazakhstan recorded 300 homicides perpetrated by domestic violence offenders, alongside 913 cases of severe bodily harm and 837 cases of moderate bodily harm. More than 37,000 individuals faced various legal responsibilities during this period[2]. Authorities at the time indicated that legal ambiguities and social stigma discouraged victims from reporting crimes, while some perpetrators were unaware of the illegality of their actions[3]. Victims were not only subjected to physical and psychological violence but also experienced familial pressure to “avoid bringing shame to the family” and accept the situation. Deception and superstition were often exploited; for instance, when a girl was persuaded to comply with marriage against her will, it was believed that refusing would bring misfortune to her family[4]. In some instances, bride kidnappings had tragic outcomes—for example, in May 2025, national media reported that a vehicle transporting a kidnapped bride in southern Kazakhstan was involved in an accident, resulting in her death[5].
Khalida Azhigulova, a human rights lawyer, asserts that thousands of women in Kazakhstan are compelled into marriage annually, including many who are abducted. In some cases, women only realize that a marriage had already been arranged when the abductors bring them to the designated home[6].
On March 28, 2025, the Office of the Prosecutor General, during a session of the Human Dimensions Dialogue Platform, supported President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev’s initiative to introduce a separate article in the Penal Code defining liability for bride kidnapping[7]. Ultimately, on April 15, 2025, Article 125-1 was added to the Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, criminalizing forced marriage. Prior to this, in March 2024, President Tokayev had strongly condemned the practice of bride kidnapping, describing it as a “barbaric darkness” and calling for immediate legal action[8]. This law covers situations where a woman is coerced into marriage through abduction or threats of violence. Violations of this provision may result in fines of up to 2,000 Monthly Calculation Indexes (MCI), corrective labor, restriction of freedom, or imprisonment for up to two years. If these acts result in serious consequences, punishment can range from five to ten years of imprisonment[9].
The harshest penalties apply when coercion involves violence, targets a minor, is carried out by a group, or exploits an official position. Simultaneously, Article 125 of the amended Penal Code establishes that abductors are now liable even if the victim is voluntarily released—whereas previously, this could have been considered a mitigating factor[10]. Furthermore, the law imposes criminal responsibility not only on the abductors but also on those who assist them, including friends or relatives, with imprisonment ranging from three to seven years[11].
The Deputy Head of the Police Department clarified: “Stalking occurs when a person is pursued via phone or in person. This includes repeated calls, messages, and social media monitoring. If the victim does not consent and says no, but the harasser persists three or four times or more, this constitutes an offense punishable under Article 115-1 of the Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan[12].”
Challenges and Responses
- Cultural and Traditional Foundations
Despite the enactment of new laws criminalizing forced marriage and bride kidnapping in Kazakhstan, many observers and human rights and women’s rights activists believe that the main challenge remains rooted in the country’s cultural and social frameworks. In parts of Kazakhstan, and more broadly in some Central Asian societies, traditions such as Alyp Qashu continue to be reproduced through customary practice, family traditions, or as part of cultural identity. This persistent cultural embedding complicates the effective enforcement of laws. Murad Abnous, a member of the Kazakh Parliament, has referred to these practices as “ancient traditions[13].” Overall, this custom has historical roots in Kazakh culture and is often portrayed in popular culture as a romantic gesture[14].
This particular form of marriage exemplifies the ethical and cultural tensions that arise when efforts are made to revive traditions while moving away from Soviet-era norms[15]. Although legal penalties for bride kidnapping aimed at non-consensual marriage have been discussed in Kazakhstan since the mid-1990s, human rights activists note that perpetrators involved in bride kidnapping cases have remained largely unaccountable for almost 30 years[16]. This indicates that even within the current structure, some individuals continue to adhere to these traditions and beliefs. Systemic shortcomings, entrenched gender stereotypes, and lack of training among officials contribute to widespread repeat victimization and impunity for perpetrators[17]. Additionally, social pressures, fear of shame, gender stereotypes, and concerns about familial or societal rejection prevent many victims from filing complaints or pursuing judicial action. From this perspective, merely amending criminal laws is insufficient; without social attitude change, public education, women’s empowerment, and increased awareness of individual rights and human dignity, these behaviors are likely to persist in hidden or informal forms.
- Domestic Reactions
The Kazakhstan-based news outlet Central Media 24/7 reported in February 2026—nearly one year after the criminalization of forced marriage and bride kidnapping—on the implementation of these laws and the ongoing social issue. The report, citing the statements of the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan, indicated that dozens of criminal cases had been registered under the new Penal Code provisions related to stalking (harassment and pursuit) and forced marriage across different regions of the country. According to the data, Shymkent city and some southern areas of Kazakhstan accounted for the highest number of cases. The report also noted that following government-led awareness campaigns on the new laws, the rate of citizen complaints and reporting had increased significantly. While emphasizing that the criminal reforms represent an important step in women’s protection, the media highlighted that phenomena such as stalking, forced marriage pressures, and bride kidnapping remain significant social and cultural challenges in certain regions of Kazakhstan[18].
- International Reactions
The legal platform Opinio Juris produced a report analyzing the issue of bride kidnapping not only in Kazakhstan but across Central Asia, linking the phenomenon to gender-based violence, weak law enforcement, and the persistence of certain traditional norms. The report emphasizes that bride kidnapping, perceived in some areas as part of social tradition, is in practice associated with coercion, psychological pressure, threats, and in some cases, violence and sexual assault. Many victims are unable to escape this cycle due to fear of social stigma or lack of family support. The report also points to legal gaps, low rates of judicial follow-up, and limited public awareness of existing laws, stressing the need for innovative approaches—including technology, public education, and social warning mechanisms—to reduce such gender-based violence[19].
The think tank Vanguard, affiliated with Johns Hopkins University and Sciences Po, examined Alyp Qashu and its dimensions from the perspective of women’s rights conventions. The report does not treat bride kidnapping merely as a cultural or social ritual but evaluates it in many instances as a form of forced marriage, the deprivation of women’s free consent, and a violation of their fundamental rights. Drawing upon the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the analysis notes that the persistence of this phenomenon, particularly in rural and traditional areas, reflects ongoing patriarchal patterns and weaknesses in legal and social protection for women. The report further highlights existing legal gaps, the possibility for some offenders to evade punishment, social pressures on victims, and the relative ineffectiveness of protective mechanisms, calling for legal reforms, public education, cultural attitude changes, and strengthened access to justice and support services for women[20]. It is worth noting that this report predates Kazakhstan’s criminalization of bride kidnapping but elucidates key aspects of the practice.
The international human rights organization Walk Free also assessed the law in focus, regarding the criminalization of forced marriage in Kazakhstan as an important step in protecting human rights and combating modern forms of slavery. The report emphasizes that the new Penal Code reforms, including the introduction of Article 125-1 titled “Coercion into Marriage,” establish punishments such as fines, restriction of liberty, and imprisonment. Heavier penalties are prescribed in cases involving minors, the use of violence, or group participation. The organization also highlights the closure of previous legal loopholes, such as the ability of perpetrators to escape punishment if the victim is superficially released. Walk Free further identifies forced marriage as a form of modern slavery disproportionately affecting women and girls and notes its association with exploitation, violence, human trafficking, and long-term harm. While welcoming the recent reforms, the organization calls for strengthened support mechanisms, enhanced victim identification, elimination of minimum marriage age exceptions, and expanded services for victims of violence and forced marriage in Kazakhstan[21].
The English-language analytical news outlet The Times of Central Asia (TCA), based in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, published a report titled “Stealing Brides, Ignoring Justice: The Battle Against Forced Marriage in Central Asia,” addressing this issue in Central Asia, including Kazakhstan. The report describes bride kidnapping not merely as a cultural tradition but as a form of gender-based violence and a violation of women’s fundamental rights, noting that existing laws in many cases have been insufficient to address the complexities of the phenomenon. The report cites statements from some Kazakh lawmakers who assert that general kidnapping regulations are inadequate to effectively combat forced marriage. It also points to low rates of case referral to courts, weak law enforcement, social pressures, and persistent patriarchal attitudes, emphasizing that a significant portion of bride kidnapping cases remain unpunished. Beyond Kazakhstan, the report examines similar situations in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, highlighting the persistence of this practice as indicative of the gap between legal reforms and cultural and social realities in parts of Central Asian communities[22].
Conclusion
The recent developments in Kazakhstan concerning the criminalization of forced marriage, bride kidnapping, and persistent harassment can be viewed as part of the country’s broader efforts to redefine the relationship between tradition, law, and human rights, particularly women’s rights. The adoption of these reforms demonstrates that the Kazakh government, influenced by social, media, and international pressures—especially from European human rights organizations—has been compelled to respond to practices that for years remained on the margins of customary traditions and were rarely recognized as human rights issues.
However, the complexity of this issue is not solely due to legal gaps; the persistence of cultural and social structures in certain regions continues to reproduce patriarchal norms, normalize various forms of coercion against women, and impede full implementation of the law. From this perspective, the new legislation represents an important yet preliminary step in addressing gender-based violence and safeguarding the freedom and dignity of women in Kazakh society.
At the same time, Kazakhstan’s experience indicates that genuine legal protection for women cannot be achieved solely through criminalization and harsher penalties. The ongoing statistics, low rates of judicial follow-up in certain cases, and the significant role of social and cultural pressures highlight that the core challenge lies deeper than legal or judicial measures. Consequently, many human rights organizations and analysts emphasize the necessity of cultural and social reforms, public education, increased awareness of women’s rights, and strengthening of supportive and social mechanisms. Ultimately, the successful implementation of these reforms will largely depend on Kazakhstan’s ability to strike a balanced approach between respecting cultural norms and traditions while adhering to principles of human dignity, free consent, and fundamental women’s rights.
References
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[2] Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan. (2023, August 4). Kazakhstan plans to toughen liability for bride kidnapping. Websites of Government Bodies. From: https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/press/news/details/597697?lang=en
[3] Tanzania Standard Newspapers. (2025, September 17). Central Asian state cracks down on ‘bride kidnapping’. Tanzania Standard Newspapers. From: https://dailynews.co.tz/central-asian-state-cracks-down-on-bride-kidnapping/
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[7] Sakenova, S. (2025, April 2). Kazakhstan Acts to Protect Women, Criminalize Bride Kidnapping. The Astana Times. From: https://astanatimes.com/2025/04/kazakhstan-acts-to-protect-women-criminalize-bride-kidnapping/
[8] Kulik, A. (2025, May 29). A fine of 15 thousand dollars, or up to 10 years in prison: the Parliament of Kazakhstan has approved punishment for forced marriage and stalking. UNN. From: https://unn.ua/en/news/a-fine-of-15-thousand-dollars-or-up-to-10-years-in-prison-the-parliament-of-kazakhstan-has-approved-punishment-for-forced-marriage-and-stalking
[9] Avesta Agency. (2025, October 14). For the first time, criminal cases for forced marriage have been opened in Kazakhstan. Avesta Agency. From: https://en.avesta.tj/2025/10/14/for-the-first-time-criminal-cases-for-forced-marriage-have-been-opened-in-kazakhstan/
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[14] Otar, A. (2025, May 27). Not Culture, But Crime: The Hidden Harms of Bride Kidnapping. EL. From: https://el.kz/en/not-culture-but-crime-the-hidden-harms-of-bride-kidnapping_400025131/
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[16] Weisskopf, A. (2025, January 19). Cruel tradition: How Kazakhstan fights ‘bride kidnapping’. DW. From: https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-bride-kidnapping-tradition/a-71303808
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[19] Bereveskos, L. (2025, August 28). The Technological Key to Combatting Bride Kidnapping in Central Asia. Opinio Juris. From: https://opiniojuris.org/2025/08/29/the-technological-key-to-combatting-bride-kidnapping-in-central-asia/
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